Argyle & Tuckman’s Theories of Communication

This assignment will discuss two well known theories of effective communication. Firstly it will look at Michael Argyle (1972), the cycle of communication and then it will discuss Bruce Tuckman (1965) stages of communication. Michael Argyle (1972) looks at the cycle of communication which involves six stages this is about sending receiving and the decoding of messages between individual and also groups. 1.An ideas occurs – when one has thought of an idea that they want to express with another person/s2.Message coded – when the idea has been thought through, there is a thought process of how this idea is going to then be communicated. There is a thought as to how this message is going to express it, as it could be through language, writing, sign or symbols or whatever it may be.3.Message sent – articulate the message, may it be verbal, written, sign or use what would be most appropriate in order to communicate effectively.4.Message received – when the messa ge has been heard or seen, depending on how the message was sent in the first place.5.Message decoded – this is where the person who had received the message is starting to make sense of the message. As one tries to decode the message is received is at this point where they can miss interpret the message.6.Message understood – providing that all goes well the initial idea is then understood but sometimes this doesn’t always happen. Once there is understanding thenBruce Tuckman’s (1965), stages of communication looks at how a group of people have to develop their behaviour in order to become an effective group, all to reach a common goal. His sequential theory has four stages of communication. 1.Forming – has been considered to be the introduction stage, where it is not clear to the group what their purpose is. At the same time they put one another under scrutiny as they are not too familiar with each other, so there in not much in the way of trust either. So as a result of this some may not be happy with the idea. Some may be feeling frustrated where as others may just have some issues about working with  particular people. There could be a lack of values and some prejudices may possibly be expressed initially to some members of the group.2.Storming – when putting certain characters together that usually don’t work with one another, it at this stage where the competition is rife as there is a power struggle within the group as some may try to change the team’s mission. This could result in arguments about how the group is going work and what roles each member will be having. Eventually the team itself could splint. As a result of putting different people together, the group begins to form relationships with each other and can sometimes for smaller group. This causes the lack of motivation, anxiety and frustration resulting in the groups failure to complete the mission.3.Norming – during this stag e the trust and respect is developing amongst the members of the group, since it becomes clear that each member has a role and they are aware of what their role will be. As a result of them coming together with a common goal they all have a shared expectation of each other, which is known as norm. They have fully established norm, a set of common beliefs and values. Individuals become more motivated and commitment is demonstrated with each member of the group, whilst the team is being creative. The group now have a fully defined purpose and so success begins to flow within the group.4.Performing – the group now demonstrates that actually they are able to perform the task effectively as members feel comfortable, at ease and have a sense of belonging to the group as a whole. There is a high sense of morale as the group experience high levels of trust, pride and support from each other and so now this group begin to feel that their performance has been of better-quality.More oft en than not I believe that the patterns of behaviour do actually arise in some individuals. There are those that are more extreme than others, whereas some are less extreme but none the less this does not suggest that people cannot work well together. According to Tuckman’s theory these stages can be very effective in breaking down the barriers of  communication within a group of individuals that have a common goal. With Argyle’s theory it is agreed that this very process does actually taken place when communication but at the same time it could easily breakdown when the message has been misunderstood of misheard.

Political Corruption

The main forms of corruption are bribery, fraud, embezzlement and extortion. These concepts do sometimes overlap, but through them, some of the basic characteristics of corruption can be identified.The reason why young people should fight corruption has to do with the fact that it destroys the system of values in society. Youth is part of civil society and carries the future in its hand and the fact that you are able to look at society in a refreshing way allows you to find alternative solutions for abstract problems. This part of the booklet is about concrete initiatives on how to fight corruption. In the whole world, there are many young people who stand firm and choose not take part of the vicious circle of corruption. But still too many young people are not well aware or think that they cannot make a difference. There are many success stories in fighting corruption: itis not an impossible thing! Of course we cannot expect it to disappear overnight, but every step we undertake con tributes to limit its harmful effects! In Hong Kong for instance, through a School Education Program, students are now better aware of the problem of corruption and do not tolerate it any longer.The International Youth Network against corruption (YNAC)This network links you to other young people worldwide and gives you the possibilities to air your concerns, to disseminate knowledge about corruption and to share ideas about the best ways to fight corruption. For its purposes, the Youth Network has a website with an interactive e-forum to discuss corruption related questions and to link together with youth from around world. This forum is openly accessible to everyone. The internet portal is designed for students and maintained by their input and content.2- Responsible organizations: In 2003, an international platform for youth was created in Seoul, Republic of Korea. The IACC12 Youth Forum integrates young people into the international movement for transparency and accountability in public and private spheres. In 2001, the Youth Network Against Corruption, YNAC, was founded in The Hague. Final declaration of the IACC Youth Forum: The participants of the IACC 2003 Youth Forum formulated a final declaration about their vision.After several days of workshops and discussions, they were able to identify the key issues concerning young people and to draw an Action Plan for their future commitment. Those young people envision â€Å"A World without Corruption† and are convinced of the need for an international youth anti-corruption movement. The Youth Action Plan drawn in Seoul includes among the main point that the organization of anti-corruption workshops, presentations and discussions have a predominant position.Sharing an action plan with other youth, developing the current website to conduct online surveys and share documents, approaching governments to ensure effective civic education programs and implementing the concepts of our network in local institut ions are other key issues. The participants also recommend the creation of a corruption index of educational institutions. Perhaps the most important point is the strong will to build linkages with other youth networks so as to be able to work together efficiently and to share experiences and ideas on fighting corruption.Together, the unique contribution and participation of young people will help enhance good governance through raising both local and global awareness. d- Youth for Good Governance, the World Bank Institute's nine modules Brief Description: During this distance learning program, students from various countries study important principles of political and economic organization and how those ideas relate to governance and anti-corruption strategies. The program highlights the important role that young people can play in improving governance in their countries.Ultimately, participants develop locally relevant and feasible plans of action that will enable them to apply th e knowledge and skills they acquire to their immediate society. Responsible organization: The World Bank Institute Implementation: The learning program was implemented in three phases between fall 2002 and the end of 2003. Schools in eight countries participated, namely: Ghana, Uganda, Ukraine, United States, Russia, Tanzania, Yugoslavia, and Zambia.

Causes of the Holocaust

With the rise of anti-Semitism, Nazi's propaganda and Hitler's message, the Germans accepted the claim of the unwelcome Jewish of the Nazi regime, so they became audiences of the Holocaust, created the power of the party, moved forward , And excluded. The Jewish German people regard the Jews as scapegoats for economic and political problems. People like Germans think that others should be responsible for themselves. This will help to create anti-Semitism. David Downing believes that Jews are considered the murderers of Christ. The Jewish focus on how the teacher treats the Holocaust is clear. The most common cause of massacres of Jewish day schools is anti-Semitism. Political instability, intolerance, prejudice, hatred of Weimar Republic, Hitler, Nazi Party were second, which were quoted at about the same frequency. The third most frequently cited reason is World War I and the Treaty of Versailles. Regarding covered topics, the focus of the Jewish focus is clear again (from the most frequently quoted to those not quoted quite often): Anti-Jewish Act (86%), Slum Life (86%), Jewish Unmarried Massacre (82%), Warsaw Jewish uprising (82%), Auschwitz (79%), Slum area (79%), Kristallnacht (79%), Final solution and descent concentration camp (75%), boycott and main combustion (75%). From the Jewish point of view, all these themes will be regarded as the core of the Holocaust. Did Jud Suss guide the Holocaust? It is probably not the case, but it may play a larger role than the Holocaust catalyst that was previously accepted as a catalyst. When the Holocaust was divided into three stages of elimination, elimination, and extinction, most people placed Jud Suss in the middle of the exclusion period. This arrangement usually comes from a 90-minute meeting of Nazi senior officials held on January 20, 1942. However, as early as 1939, Poland had already begun mass murder of Jews.

Supply chain information management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Supply chain information management - Essay Example In the initial stage, distinctive procurement strategy of the company relied on three principles such as, maintain optimal amount of inventories such as books, rely on local wholesalers such as Ingram Book Company and also take help of the selected wholesalers to design and source the electronic catalogue of the book. For example, during late 1990s, Amazon maintained only 5% inventory level of its total order in its relatively small warehouses. Rest of the 95% of orders were sourced after receiving orders from customers. In such situations, Amazon quickly submits the purchase order to wholesaler for the book title which was not included in its own inventory. After receiving the purchase order from Amazon, wholesaler quickly sent the shipments and the shipment had arrived within 2-3days (Hammond 2005). In later years, when the volume of order had increased, Amazon established tie ups with book publisher to get better discount on shipment (48% on selling price) in contrast to discount rate (41% on selling price) by wholesaler (Hammond 2005). ... ater to the growing demand for books, e-books in cost and time efficient manner and another important thing was that, Amazon had realized the potential of online selling after witnessing the success of competitor eBay. After realizing the potential of selling in white space, Amazon transformed its business model in order to change the service-profit equation and offer superior value proposition to customers. The company included all sorts of easily shippable consumer goods along with books in its service portfolio in order to increase choice for customers and revenue margin by selling these items. Then Amazon started offering commission-based brokerage service to participants in online auction and also included third-party sellers in their value proposition list (Johnson 2010). Amazon has created a virtual market place in its website, where buyers and sellers can meet and bid for a particular while Amazon earns the brokerage from the participants in the online bidding process. Hence it can be said that, Amazon has transformed itself from direct sales company to a company which is able to provide sales and service in simultaneous manner. During late 2007, Amazon has enhanced the potentiality of its web service platform and offered Lab126 which was basically Kindle e-book reader. At that time, the concept of e-book was relatively new among customers and players in publishing industry but such obstacles never haltered the growth Lab126 platform. Amazon had created a seamlessly integrated iTunes like online platform for readers to subscribe, read and transact e-books which was widely successful. It is evident from the business model transformation of Amazon that the company never hesitated to take risk to launch innovative and high-margin offerings and created market for

Discovery rules Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Discovery rules - Research Paper Example Although this e- discovery technique strategic move is to be implemented, it does not entirely represent a complete turn from the digital forensic but rather it is a way of natural merger scheme. Thus, this strategy involves the utilization of both techniques to achieve a more effective strategy. This will enable a complete focus on the law, policy enforcement as well as the forensic examination. The European Union needs the implementation of strategies that prevent and further control organized crimes for the future development of the union and its member states (Brown, 2003). Discussion The necessity for apt identification, analysis and significant investigation of electronic media has never been extra vital. The forever-changing risk environment accessible by cyber illegally and technical advances has essential modern analytical processes to impact on scene forensic. Investigators encounter a lot of confrontations for confining unpredictable data, conserving possible evidence and upholding the reliability of the electronic offense sight while guaranteeing the record remains feasible and available for more analytical efforts. The accomplishment of these procedures is calculated in minutes and not days. The Cyber Forensic ground procedure recommends onsite or ground advancement for supplying the identification, investigation and interpretation of digital verification in a small moment, without the prerequisite of having to acquire the scheme back to the laboratory for a thorough inspection or attaining an absolute forensic representation. The proposed form sticks to normally held forensic ethics, and does not counteract the capacity that once the original field trial is accomplished, the system storage device is to be transported back to a laboratory setting for a more systematic assessment and analysis. The CFFTPM has more over been regarded to be successfully employed in diverse genuine world cases and its analytical significance and practical approach has a lso been sufficiently verified. Furthermore, the derived proof from these cases has not yet been confronted in the court procedures where it has been initiated (Blakeslee, 2010). The forensic information is collected using the device SSD. This device utilizes silicon chips to store the forensic data of an individual. Furthermore, the machine is accountable for the dispensation data using its individual processor. For the forensic field, this device has a great impact because it can start running software routines on the data stored when supplied with power. Additionally, the device is very fast in implementing its task. It further has got more immunity to the shock and also the magnetism effect. The data can further be used as proof throughout court investigation. This device further ensures easy and quick delivery of the records to the required destination. It further guarantees safety and confidentiality of the forensic data. The procedures followed during the collection of the fo rensic data, its preservation and moreover its transportation follows a set of policy and regulation. Thus, it guarantees confidentiality and privacy as it moves from the EU to United States (Roper & Jopling, 2010). Meanwhile,

Marketing and Supply Chain Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Marketing and Supply Chain Management - Essay Example It is in this particular instance that each of the individual companies shows their prowess and showcases what type of management they have and how stable that management is. Adversities always call for the greatest minds to work out the best management cues that will definitely allow the company to withstand any turbulent moment and engage the stakeholders in every aspect of the decision-making pyramid. Relationship management is the main source of relief for any company that is seeking leverage in economic hardships (Goldberg 2001, p. 11). However, these relationship management strategies may come with even worse effects if not handled properly. Thus, understanding what the company requires and how this can be achieved with minimal changes is an essential step towards meeting the goals of the company. The maximum is expected but this has to be approached in a slow but sure manner (Bowersox, Closs and Cooper 2002, p. 33). As will be witnessed in this report, the case of ChemCo indus tries is one significant study that will help us understand the importance of key accounting management, the relevance of relationship management and how a mishap in implementing either can lead to total disaster. The case study will also be used to investigate the impact of KAM as applied by the company and what impact it had on its stakeholder sin the long run. The report will also explore the different ways and means through which internal and external relationships can be harmonized to create a company that has better and stronger economic outlook despite the challenges they face. Supply Chain Management and Business-to-Business Marketing Business –to-Business marketing can be defined under the notion of the changing relationships between the organisations engaging in either supplying or distribution of products amongst each other. They may be defined as the continuing interactions between the two parties rather than a sequence of encounters where manipulation of prices o r demand is done by the supplier as they engage with suspicious customers (Hoegh 2008, p. 302). This can be related to the fact that those given the chance to deal with the marketing strategies may have competing interests in the business which may hinder rational decision making when the company is in question this may be witnessed and confirmed by the fact that ChemCo’s KAM manager decided what prices were to be set for certain clients while neglecting others in a bid to win over clients during their downhill financial trend. When dealing with the market and the organisation, there is something called marketing logistics that needs to be reconsidered to help understand what is expected in any setting. The market logistics are aimed at critically analysing the relationships between the two parties. This is where theories such as the 4P’s, Porter’s five force analysis and PCDA model of quality control come into focus. The company looks at the best ways through w hich their products can be attractive, how their prices and processes can be maintained or altered to improve their appeal to their clients or how they can analyze their processes and improve them to meet the demands of the clients (Hines 2004, p. 66). As such, any supply chain manager will seek to use even broader logistics to come up with a strategy that suits the entire chain and works at meeting the goals of the company whether by including the subsidiaries or delegating duties and targets for each of the subsidiaries to achieve (Mentzer et. al. 2001, p. 3). However, it is crucial to understand that chain management does not exclude even the smallest retailers in the chain. Instead, as a manager, considering the benefits of

Cloud Computing Security Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Cloud Computing Security - Essay Example This paper will compare some of the journal articles that address cloud-computing security. Bisong and Rahman (2011) note that many business organizations are beginning to adopt the cloud computing technology as a strategy for cutting down cost so as to increase the company’s profitability. They argue that cloud many companies, which have adopted this concept, have reaped a lot of benefits by cutting down cost, saving time and maximizing their flexibility. Despite the benefits, Bisong, and Rahman (2011) cautions that there is a number of security issues associated with cloud computing technology that an organization has to deal with effectively to maintain confidentiality, integrity, and reliability. As a result, Bisong and Rahman (2011) addresses all the security concerns associated with cloud computing technology in an organization such as the threat, vulnerability and risks in their journal article titled, â€Å"An Overview of the Security Concerns in Enterprise Cloud Comp uting† Qaisar and Khawaja (2012) through a journal article titled, â€Å"Cloud Computing: Network/Security Threats and Countermeasure†s agree with the view expressed by Bisong and Rahman (2011) that many companies today are looking forward to adopting the cloud computing concept since it is economical in terms of cost thereby resulting in improved profitability. In this article, Qaisar and Khawaja (2012) explore the security concerns associated with cloud computing concept. However, unlike in the previous article by Bisong and Rahman (2011) the article by Qaisar and Khawaja (2012) goes further to discuss the various types of cloud computing that are available for use. The third article â€Å"Is Cloud Computing Secure?† by Brittanny Lyons (2011) also acknowledges that cloud computing has been of great benefits to many companies, which have managed to adopt the concept. Lyons (2011) gives an example of Amazon and Google that uses the cloud computing technology to m anage their networks. However, the article like the previous two articles examines how safe the technology is for managing business networks in an organization. Lyons (2011) argues that cloud computing is secure just as the standard computing technology. Nevertheless, the article also agrees with the other articles that there are security issues that must be taken into consideration before adopting the concept in an organization. This includes hackers, viruses, worms, and cyber-terrorists. Other risks noted include lack of privacy since the providers are able to access the data being relayed through the system. With regard to style used, the first two scholarly journals are written in formal academic styles. This is evident as the articles have the abstract, introduction section, conclusion and the bibliography/reference sections. The content is also thoroughly and detailed, as the researchers appear to have gone deep when conducting the research. For instance, it can be seen that t he two scholarly journals went deep to discuss the cloud computing security related issues by giving examples as well as how to counter the threats as noted in the article by Qaisar and Khawaja (2012). The two scholarly journals also have a number of charts and graphs, which have been used for illustrating information. For instance, the article by Bisong

Discussion of the various issues related to corporate governance and Dissertation

Discussion of the various issues related to corporate governance and its impact on financial performance of companies - Dissertation Example The analysis includes a comprehensive literature review on corporate governance, its various mechanisms and the impact on financial performance of firms; as well as P.E.S.T analysis of the four companies. Impact of corporate governance mechanisms on modern companies Contents Sr.# Topic Pg. # 1. Introduction 4 1.1. Purpose of the study 5 2. Brief Background 10 2.1. Meaning and definition 10 2.2. Significance and relevance 11 3. Literature Review 14 3.1. Accounting & Finance Theory: Corporate Governance 14 3.1.1 Corporate governance mechanisms 18 3.1.2. Effect of corporate governance on earnings management 22 3.1.3. Agency theory and corporate governance 25 3.1.4. Corporate governance regulations 3.2. Impact of corporate governance on bank performance 3.3. Relationship between board rules and board effectiveness 3.4. Relationship between board effectiveness and financial performance 4. Industry/ Sector overview 4.1. Banking Sector 4.1.1. HSBC 4.1.2. RBS 4.2. Integrated Oil and Gas sect or 4.2.1. British Petroleum P.L.C. 4.3. Retail sector 4.3.1. J. Sainsbury P.L.C. 5. Research Methodology 6. Findings and Analysis 6.1. P.E.S.T. analysis 6.1.1. HSBC 6.1.2. RBS 6.1.3. British Petroleum 6.1.4. J Sainsbury 7. Conclusion and Recommendations Reference list 1. Introduction The various financial scandals resulting on account of misappropriation of accounts and funds including top British banks such as Barclays Bank for the Libor scandal (The Guardian, 2012a); Lloyds Bank - which resulted in more than ?2 million worth of bonus cuts for the directors (The Telegraph, 2012); HSBC's money laundering scandal (The Guardian, 2012b); among many others have brought the issue of effective controls and monitoring policies of contemporary corporate institutions into question. Such financial and money-laundering scandals are not a recent phenomenon as is evident from the historically infamous cases involving top companies such as Enron and Worldcom among many others whereby the interest s of the stakeholders and the general community were ignored by the management leading to widespread concern. Incidences such as these have raised serious concerns regarding the effectiveness of governing policies required to enhance accountability among the management and help control and monitor their activities and decision making, in order to safeguard the interests of the stakeholders. Scandals such as these are certainly not new and have been witnessed in almost all sectors of the industry. However the rising number of such incidences has brought to light the ineffectiveness of corporate governance policies or their lack thereof in preventing them. It has also given rise to debates regarding the vulnerability of stakeholders against the misappropriation of funds by the management and their lack of control in having a say in company matters. The failure of companies in recent times along with the historical cases whereby various companies were forced to shut down on account of such scandals (including BCCI, Maxwell Communications etc) has prompted researchers to probe into the matter and suggest effective solutions and recommendations with regard to various corporate governance issues. The literature on impact, influence and consequences of lack of corporate governance on financial frauds has grown over the years which reaffirm the consensus on the issue regarding its significance. This study

Promoting good nutrition in patient with dementia Research Paper

Promoting good nutrition in patient with dementia - Research Paper Example Based on the causes of dementia, Alzheimer’s disease is the major cause, but secondary causes also have a role to play. This includes secondary brain conditions and injury to the brain substance secondary to trauma. Alzheimer’s disease is a degenerative brain condition affecting memory and cognitive brain functions, and is the commonest form of dementia in people over the age of 65. Vascular dementia results from cerebrovascular or cardiovascular problems which often result in strokes. Minor but important causes of dementia include HIV diseases, Huntington’s disease and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. Dementia is a condition whose principal prevalence is in old people over 65 years, but children and middle aged adults may suffer from dementia. Trauma, brain tumours, heart conditions, lung conditions, poisoning and some terminal infections may lead to dementia in this group. Some inherited disorders like glycogen storage diseases and mitochondrial abnormalities are specific for children, causing dementia. Whatever age group affected, dementia is a serious condition that leads to progressive memory loss and degenerative cognitive functions. Treatment will never reverse or stop the condition, but instead the treatment reduces the symptoms, thereby slowing down the disease progression. Apart from symptom alleviation, adequate rest, nutrition and hydration are very important as they reduce morbidity and mortality. In terminal dementia, the patients are unable to cater for themselves completely which calls for the input of the caregiver in providing optimal nutrition and in the correct proportion. In dementia, there is degenerative brain loss due to loss of neurons. Dementia is associated with malnutrition due to the feeding difficulties in people who suffer from the condition. Impaired cognitive functions lead to a deficit in the short-term memory making the patient forget simple tasks like feeding. The patient may also become easily distracted, thereby

Police corruption Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Police corruption - Research Paper Example Police has been vested with enormous powers; these powers are essential for maintaining the rule of law. However these powers can also be the source of corruption as people are usually at the mercy of the police officers in many circumstances where they have been wronged. People who have been fighting for democracy and governance regard the issue of fighting police corruption with utmost importance. Police must not only serve the common man but should also be seen as serving the common man. This is essential if basic human rights have to be protected and people have to live in safe and secure environments. When people who have been entrusted with the task of protecting people, engage in corruption themselves it leads to cynicism and may erode public confidence in democracy. Police corruption is not a standalone issue. It is a function of larger systematic problem which is compounded by lack of transparency , absence of checks and balances and fragile institutions. Although the popular perception is always that police corruption is rampant and should be death with an iron hand it is not always possible to do this. The government and the judiciary have to always take sensitivities into account. This paper tries to find out the different kinds of police corruption that are prevalent and also tries to find out the solution to the problem through a systematic method. Understanding Police Corruption In very simple terms corruption may be defined as the use of public powers in order to get personal gains. Police corruption occurs at both the levels – on the streets and also behind the scenes in offices. Officers corruption range from petty corruption to collusion with criminals where the look the other way and do not perform their constitutional duties. The extreme end is when police officers themselves take part in criminal activities in order to have financial or other benefits. Police officers have been vested with enormous powers in order to enforce law. These include the powers to stop, question, search, arrest people and even use lethal force whenever circumstances deteriorate. The important thing is that police have extraordinary amount of discretion in the exercise of these powers which give ample avenues for corruption. Backroom corruption in the police department does not consist of the use of these powers but involves irregular a nd illegal practices in the award of contracts, receiving kickbacks for favorable appointments and transfers and negligence in investigations and discipline. This corruption is done by supervisors and senior officers and thus the amount of money involved is also large. We will analyze each of these cases of corruption in detail here. Petty Individual Corruption Whenever we talk about police corruption to a common man, the most common type of corruption which comes to our minds is traffic police corruption. This form of corruption may be limited din developed countries but is extremely prevalent in every developing country. Some countries are so notorious for traffic police corruption that whenever a person is stopped for police checking he assumes that he will have to cough up. Other forms of petty corruption include extorting regular payments from market vendors, asking people to pay money for

Behaviour and experience which in nearly all situation affects Essay Example for Free

Behaviour and experience which in nearly all situation affects Essay The studies carried out by Milgram, Piliavin, Haney and Gardner Gardner, have unearthed some very important as well as surprising details about human behaviour and experience which in nearly all situation affects it. This question looks at the various forms of human behaviour, which make us what we are and also looks at experience, something we all seem to rely on heavily. Firstly, in Milgrams study of obedience, it was found that under pressure or authority we sometimes do what we normally would not have done, therefore showing that others influence our behaviour, particularly those who we think are more superior to us. Carry on , one of the main prods the experimenter used on the teacher to make the teacher carry on with the shock treatment. This shows that not only the presence of some authority figure, but also what they do and say can influence human behaviour. One of the reasons, which make us think that a person is superior to us, is because we think of the experience he/she has in that particular field or area. Because of this we assume that they are superior to us and that what they tell is the only option we can follow. Of course this is not always the case. Hitler did have some men in his army who did not follow his instructions and did try and betray him, but the majority of his army did do as he commanded. The effect of an authority on human behaviour is demonstrated clearly in Milgrams study as the teachers ask the so called experimenters, who they think are an authority over them, whether or not they should continue giving shock treatment to the subjects and they also turn to them for support and advice during a very tough emotional and moral battle that they are fighting within themselves. Therefore we turn to people who we think have more experience than us and our decisions are affected by what others say and do, especially those who we see as an authority above us. Similarly, in Pilavins study, human behaviour when helping people revolves particularly around three main factors. These are: Cost Reward Analysis, Plurastic ignorance and the emotional arousal. It was discovered in the experiment that people only went to help if the situation appealed to them and if they thought it was serious enough to help. This resulted in the drunk getting less help than the cane victims. Also people used the cost reward analysis before helping. This in simplified terms means the advantages and disadvantages of helping and also the advantages and disadvantages of not helping. This shows another part of the human behavioural patterns. Another, which can be added to this, is that of plurastic ignorance, which means that people do not know what to do, and therefore look at others near them and assess the genuineness based on what they do. Therefore if most people would not help, neither would that person. Also another reasons for humans not helping during certain situation is because of the Diffusion of Responsibility which means that the more people we see around us, the less we help out as we think that someone else will do so. There is also emphasis on experience in the experiment as it can once again have effect on human behaviour. In this particular experiment if passengers on the train had themselves been a victim (i. e.  cane victim, or drunk), or even if they had helped others before, it will most probably have an effect on their behaviour. Those people, who got help from others when they themselves were victims, might help out, whereas those who got no help when in a similar situation might not help. Also if a person has helped before and had not had the best of times helping, may decide to stay away from he incident this time around. Zimbardos Prison Stimulation experiment was another experiment during which human behaviour and experience paid an important role. It was thought that prison life would have an effect on the behaviour of the prisoners as well as that of the guards. It was discovered that prisoners started to behave in degrading ways because of them being trapped in a prison environment and also because they always had to follow orders from the guards and also because of the fact that they had no choice in the matter. Similarly the guards started to behave in cruel ways once they knew that they were powerful. They then started to punish guards whenever they felt like it. Zimbardos experiment proves the fact that when we have power and are see as an authority figure by others, our behaviour changes drastically and we become on some occasion very unfair and cruel to those below us. Experience once again can affect behaviour. This is because those who have been in a prison before will feel that it is not that bad as they have been there before and know what to expect whereas those who havent been before find it as a shock. Those who have been in prison before may behave in a more civilised manner than others who havent. Finally, the experiment carried out by Gardner and Gardner did not really uncover anything about human behaviour apart from the fact that language is something we are innately programmed to do. In this experiment a chimp named Washoe was taught ASL(American Sign Language), but even after 4 years of training, only 132 signs were learnt. In comparison with that human children learn much more as they grow older, therefore showing that humans are innately programmed to do so. It also shows that we have a much more complex form of communication which animals like chimps cannot learn. Experience is again a relative feature in this experiment. The experiment shows that with adequate experience even animals can learn features of our communication, therefore if they were to continue to be taught for many hundred of years they too may be able to communicate in the complex form that we are now able to communicate in. Therefore all these various studies show a close relationship between experience and our behaviour.

Science Time Lesson Plan Essay Example for Free

Science Time Lesson Plan Essay Materials:   classroom analog clock, individual student clocks, Daily Times worksheet Objective:   Students will use scientific processes: questioning, planning and conducting investigations, using appropriate tools and techniques to gather data, thinking critically and logically about relationships between evidence and explanations, and communicating results. Anticipatory Set: Teacher will discuss daily routine, getting up in the morning, dressing breakfast, and the times of each event.     Emphasize the clock time for each event using the large clock. Instructional Procedures:   The students have explored the concept of a minute; they need to know how to tell time. They need to be able to see a clock and know how to read 1-5 minutes on it. Read the story Clocks and More Clocks and discuss why the clocks tell different times. It is important the students understand that activities take time, introduce the term â€Å"lapsed time†. When they participate in various activities it takes time and this is â€Å"lapsed time†. Discuss how long it takes to do reading, spelling, recess, and other class activities. Students can also discuss how much time they spend at lunch or in the computer lab. Students will practice with a clock looking at various times. (Students should have done activities with a clock prior to doing this activity.) Pair them up and give several guided practice times to check for understanding.   Once this you have accomplished this step the students can be given a sheet to record events of the day. They need to record these events so they are sequenced in the correct order. Discuss why the clocks were at different times. Distribute clocks. Have the students show various times on their clocks. (Have them do times that are part of their day. Example: recess, lunch, computer time, etc.) Pass out the worksheet. Have them begin working on the sheet. Send it home to be finished. Assessment:   Students will create clocks using paper plates then mark and label times on the clock for events of the day. Additional Resources: Pigs on the Blanket by Amy Axelrod The Grouchy Ladybug by Eric Carle Nine O’clock Lullaby by Marilyn Singer All About Time by Andre Verde   Social Studies Lesson Plan Materials: classroom analog clock, 12 x 18 sheet of white construction paper, individual student clocks, Daily Times worksheet Objective:   Ã‚  Place important life events in chronological order on a timeline.   An understanding of chronological order is applied to the analysis of the interrelatedness of events.   Ã‚  The student will order the events that occur in a day. The student will distinguish between events that occur in the a.m. and p.m. Anticipatory Set:   The teacher will review the terms of analog, a.m. and p.m. as well as discuss the difference between the two.   Prior Knowledge:   Teacher will then brainstorm activities for each. Develop prior knowledge by asking for suggestions of activities that occur in the a.m. and p.m.   Create a tree map to display students suggestions. Instructional Procedure: Give each student a small analog clock to review time to the hour, half hour, and quarter hour. The teacher will model using the classroom clock. Using students brainstorming suggestions of events, have the students demonstrate the time on their clocks and name whether it is a.m. or p.m. Hand out white construction paper and model folding into eight sections. Students will follow step by step directions by folding once vertically and twice horizontally to create the eight sections, (teacher may need to help some students with this part). Students will cut the handout of paper blank clocks and glue one on to each section of the paper.   Students will then choose four events that occur in the a.m. and label the time to the hour, half hour, or quarter hour on their blank analog clock with pencil. Under each time, students will write the digital time. Students will write a sentence describing the event and the time it occurs under the digital time. For example, I get up in the morning at 8:15 a.m. Students will follow the same steps for the p.m. times on the second day. Once students have completed their My Day Timeline, they will get together with a partner to read their timeline. The partner will ask them a questions after each time to encourage social and communication skills. Assessment:   The students will be evaluated based on the completion of the My Day Timeline. Teacher will monitor as students complete closure activity and check for accurate use of time and a.m. /p.m. Extension: Students can elaborate on their sentence by describing what and how they do each activity in their sentence.

The International Marketing Strategies Of Companies Marketing Essay

The International Marketing Strategies Of Companies Marketing Essay It is not too long ago when people from one part of the world did not know the existence of others. Peoples desire to share knowledge and explore the whole world led to some major exploration likes Marco Polo and Christopher Columbus, who made the connection between Europe and America. Before this period, people had no scope to know about knowledge or innovations of others. It was the 16th century A.D. that brought Patagonian Indians to America. During the 17th century Europeans discovered Australia and by that time the whole world was recognized and was ready for contact and trade activity. This can be considered to be the earliest recorded history of the beginning of a new era called globalization. (Daniels et al. ,2002). Although the idea of globalization and its relation to the business world is not too old and it is only in the last two decades that the current trend of globalization has brought a dramatic change to the business world (Thoumrungroje Tansuhaj, 2004). In the book, Globalisation in world business, the author A. G. Hopkins said globalization is not simply a western experience. The key is to understand the globalizing processes which include ancient and modern as well as western and eastern dimensions. The representative of globalisation could be anywhere starting from spiritual leaders and their beliefs to crowned heads and their royal family; travelling soldiers and scholars or even traders or general community people (Bell, 2003). However, Globalization has been defined by Jane Fraser and Jeremy Oppenheim (1997), in the simplest terms, as a process by which the worlds economy is transformed from a set of national and regional markets into a set of markets that operate without regard to national boundaries. WHAT DRIVES IT? In mid 1980s, after facing some fast changes in cold war, East world-West world relation became almost friendly. In addition, after the fall of Soviet Union, lot of emerging markets appeared in the context of world market, with an aspiration to enhance their living standard. In 1990s West German and East Germany re-merged and appeared as a potential industrialist country in world market. Many Eastern Europe countries and transition economies countries joined in European Union. China and India started exporting goods and services to large regions of the globe, particularly to the United States. The powerful economic growth of countries, resulted in enlarged local demands, leading to divergence between provinces, discriminations in income, anxieties about employment, and increases in energy prices (Czinkota and Samli, 2007). The USA market took the leadership role in this current trend of globalization. Factors like decentralization, privatization, deregulation as well as the growth of cyberspace made the globalization process faster. Through decentralization, new trading markets and trading blocs have emerged around the world. The companies are able to produce, buy or sell goods anywhere in the world and meet the local and regional needs. On the other hand, deregulation removed the trade barriers and helped to form NAFTA, LAFTA and World Trade Organization. Also, non government organization became involved in globalization through the process of privatization. Countries like India and China became more involved in global trade due cyberspace and technological improvement (Czinkota and Samli, 2007). Many authors and scholars have talked about many characteristics of globalization around the world. But factors like fast technological progress, the deteriorating role of the nation state, transfer of industrial production from western countries to newly industrialising countries for cheap labour and material are key drivers of globalization (Brown, 1999). THE EFFECT OF GLOBALISATION The effects of globalization are spreading widely day by day. All the major industries and business of both developed and developing countries, along with individuals, are affected by globalization. (Garrette, 2000). The current business environment is more aggressive and competitive and can be characterised as hypercompetitive environment (DAveni, 1994). As markets are becoming more global day by day, the trade involves more countries and economies around the world. World merchandise trade was $157 billion in 1963 and it has become $10,159 in 2005 which is a significant increase of $10 trillion. Also, service trade which used to be $365 billion in 1980 has increased to $2,415 billion (Held Mcgrew, 2007). The effect of globalization brought dramatic changes in the business environment and companies are restructuring their business due to this reason (Jones, 2002). One of the most strategical change and significant business development in the recent years, is the formation of co-marketing alliances (Hwang and Burgers, 1997). Globalization does not always bring good outcome to all people. It has badly affected the job sector of the developed countries, where jobs of manufacturing sector has decreased. As production plants have moved to the low cost producers and unavailability of alternative employment, many are still unemployed. Other issues for developed countries include the debt obligations to international bank. The amount has increased to $1 trillion which has an adverse impact on their economy. The privatisation sector, deregulation and currency adjustment has been affected due to this reason (Roukis, 2006). Globalization has consequences on our culture as well. The globalization of culture also affects cities. As people around the world exchange cultural symbols, they tend to forget their own cultures and identity. The exchange of cultural symbols has increased dramatically in the recent decade due to the availability of communication technologies. (Nijman,1999). Globalization also caused the remarkable increase in inequality between rich and poor countries. Also, globalization is related with globally organized crime, ethnic clash, environmental disaster, and the collapse of many states and the emergence of others, terrorism, militarism, proper democratic system as a political condition for international aid, the rise of civil wars etc. (Santos, 2006). On the other hand, Held Mcgrew (2007) suggests that economic globalization could encourage economic development as well as it could be the only successful path to global poverty reduction. During 1970, there were more than 1400 million people who used to earn less than $2 a day and during 1998, this figure came down to less than 1000 million. WHAT IS MARKETING STRATEGY? According to Varadarajan Clark (1994), Marketing strategy is concerned with the creation of a marketing mix that enables the business to achieve its objectives in a target market. Marketing strategy is the main and most important principle that a firm uses to organize and allocate its resources for generating profit from customers, who are an integrate part of the market (Kim, 2004). Aaker (2009 cited by Kyung Hoon Kim et al., 2012) notes that marketing strategy can involve a variety of functional area strategies including positioning, pricing, distribution, and global strategies. The overriding principle driving a firms marketing strategy is that, marketing strategy depends on the companys vision for its future. This vision generally reflects where the firm expects to position itself in five to ten years-in effect, how the market perceives the firm. The development of a marketing strategy needs a basic assessment of both the firm and the market. The strategy, chosen, has to be the best at increasing the firms assets, with respect to the target market (Kyung Hoon Kim et al., 2012) Also, the key task of international marketing management is to establish a companys overall international strategy which also decides the degree of international integration of the company (Ghauri Cateora, 2006). INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS AND GLOBAL MARKETING Global marketing or globalization of markets is a key issue for multinational business firms. Many companies who markets global products around the world such as Nestle, Sony, Toyota and many others has to carefully look for opportunities in the international markets. Globalization of markets is a challenging issue for governments and political party or trade unions while business related people or organizations encourage the initiative of open trade which connects different markets by going beyond the national boundary. According to Solberg (1997), cited by Hollensen (1998), the following table explains nine strategic windows which are major motives for firms to internationalise. At immature stage, where firms have little experience, it is better not to go for international markets. Instead they should strength their position in the home market. Also, if firms find themselves smaller and weaker among other multinational firms in the global market, then Solberg (1997) suggests that the firms should try to increase its net assets by attracting potential partners for a future by-out bid. This could be a good option for small and medium size enterprises who are supplying advanced high-tech components to large industrial buyers. Firms also can overcome their competitive disadvantages by going into alliances with other firms. Preparedness for internationalization Mature 3.Go into new business 6. Prepare for globalization 9. Strengthen your global position Adolescent 2.Consolidate your expert markets 5. Consider expansion in international markets 8. Seek global alliances Immature 1. Stay at home 4. Seek niches in international markets 7. Prepare for a buy-out Local Potentially global Global Industry globalism Table. The nine strategic windows , Source: opted from Solberg (1997), cited by Hollensen (1998). The technological advancement of the 21st century has been a key factor behind global marketing. The exchange of information has become easy and transport has become more cheap and comfortable. Consumers around the world wants new and innovative product even if they are being made in the other part of the world because technology makes them aware about the existence of that new product. Business firms accept this commercial reality and as result enjoy greater economies of scale in production or marketing or distribution. As a result, the globalization of business helps them to offer products at a cheaper rate and thus gain a competitive advantage among its competitors (Buzzel et al.,1995). Although global marketing strategy and globalization of markets are two interrelated areas but there is a little difference between them. Global marketing strategy is needed in order to improve the efficiency of operations while globalization of markets is occurring due to the homogeneity of demand across cultures (Ghauri cateora, 2006). Due to the raise in globalization of markets day by day companies find they are inevitably surrounded by foreign consumers as well as their competitors and suppliers. On the other hand, different countries have to admit the limitation of their own assets and the advantage of trade activities outside their own boundaries. Thus engaging in international business for both firms and countries are very much essential. According to Ghauri and Cateora (2006), the following factors play an important role in shaping of international business. Each country or economy is dependent to other economies. The formulation of free trade areas such as ASEAN, EU, APEC and NAFTA and the expansion of business activities in those areas. Countries having greater purchasing power due to their improving economy The arrival of new and potential markets with a large number of customers such as countries like India, China, Russia, Brazil, Malaysia etc. Technological advancement has been the key factor behind the improvement of transportation and communication. In order to engage in international business, companies need to have proper international marketing strategies. As international markets bring new opportunities and threats, appropriate strategies could help them to overcome possible difficulties in the international markets. Also, international companies need to respond to customer needs and wants by adapting existing product or by bringing new product to the market. (Bradley, 2002). International marketing exists all around us due to the globalization and provides new opportunities and challenges for marketers around the world. (Czinkota and Samli, 2007). EFFECT OF GLOBALISATION ON COMPANIES MARKETING STRATEGIES According to Czinkota Samli (2007), Globalization enables international marketing to take place all around us, and to continuously offer new opportunities and challenges. Successful economies are always driven by customer needs and wants. The bureaucratic plans do not play an important role there. On the other hand, a firm must have a strategic response to the challenges of global market. Companies which are expanding their business in domestic market need to choose an appropriate strategy suitable to their situation. Since a global company is involved in many countries economy, it brings the idea of standardizing the marketing activities. The recent trend in globalization encourages the companies as well as countries to engage more in world trade activities. World exports were three times higher in 1998 than 1950; according to a WTO estimate, in 2001 this ratio was 29 per cent and in 2005 it was 27 per cent comparing to 12.5 per cent in 1970 and 17 per cent in 1990. In spite of 11 September attack in the USA the world economy is still achieving a rapid growth (Held Mcgrew, 2007). Also, Czinkota and Samli (2007) suggest that the base of globalization has two dimensions. The first one deal with deregulation, decentralization, the development of electronic data transfer and the other is characterised by capital flow, information and technological development. These features accelerate globalization, which enable companies to engage in international trade activity. Thus globalization provides a powerful foundation for international marketing to make progress. CO-MARKETING ALLIANCES According to Hewang and Burgers (1997, cited by Thoumrungroje and Tansuhaj, 2004), one of the recent trends to overcome the globalization effects has been the formation of marketing alliances. As companies around the world are restructuring their business to meet the global threats co-marketing alliances can bring greater success in the international marketing performances. In simple words, Anderson and Narus (1990, cited by Louis P. Bucklin Sanjit Sengupta, 1993) defines Co-marketing alliances as a form of working partnership with mutual recognition and understanding that the success of each firm depends in part on the other firm. Its a contractual relationship between the two firms, whose respective products acts as complimentary products, in the market. The purpose of such relationship is to intensify and/or build awareness, about benefits of such complementarities. The co-ordination between firms can be extended into product development, product and even research development. Also, according to Hoskisson et al. (2004, cited by Thoumrungroje and Tansuhaj, 2004), co-marketing alliances are a particular type of strategic alliance which is a business level competitive strategy. The primary focus of such alliance is to create a competitive advantage in the international market. It is also called horizontal complementary strategic alliance. The main objective of such alliance formation is to maximize the companies profit by utilizing their resources and capabilities. Co-marketing alliances also helps firms to gain better market position through increasing sales and market share. The following figure explains the relationship between co-marketing alliance, globalization effects and international marketing performance. Global Competitive environment Global Market Uncertainty Cooperation in Co-Marketing Alliance International Marketing Performance Global Market Opportunities Figure1.4 Conceptual relationship of globalization effects, cooperation and performance. Source. Adapted from (Thoumrungroje and Tansuhaj ,2004). Thoumrungroje and Tansuhaj (2004) suggest there are two kinds of globalization effects. They are global market opportunities and global market threats. Global market opportunities encourage the mergers of different firms, by combining their resources; from which, more powerful and larger group can emerge. Such groups are capable of providing a complete range of new product and services and thus gain the customer preferences. In United States, Citigroup and Travellers Group have merged together and have become one of the most successful financial service providers in the world. Also, powerful companies like General motor is attacking different sector by offering credit cards.(Doole Lowe, 1999) On the other hand, Thoumrungroje and Tansuhaj (2004) also suggest global market threat could be classified into two categories. It is consists of global market uncertainty as well as the intensity and the level of competition. Global market threats are increasing due to, the easy access opportunity in the international markets. However, Co-marketing alliance does have significant management challenges, in spite of its potential contribution. There are chances of disagreement between partners, as they often tend to compete with each other in terms of product lines and occasionally, even those covered by co-marketing agreement. In fact, there is a high possibility of opportunism as one of the partners may use the other to gain market position only; or may be to build technological skills from the knowledge of the others intellectual property. (Louis P. Bucklin Sanjit Sengupta, 1993) STANDARDISATION VERSUS ADAPTATION Its been a long time, since the two opposing international marketing strategies have been debated upon standardisation versus adaptation of products. Standardization means selling essentially the same product in all markets. The advantage of standardisation is low costs, as designing, manufacturing and distributing same product across countries involves less of investment. However, selling identical products across borders may be undesirable due to differences in the legal environments, distribution channels, climates, topography, levels of market and technological development, and competitive and cultural factors. As customers of different countries have different requirements, a standardised product might not be able to satisfy all customers. (Roger J. Calantone et al. 2004) On the other hand, product adaptation refers to the degree to which the physical characteristics or attributes of a product and its packaging differs across national markets (Cavusgil et al., 1993 cited by Roger J. Calantone et al. 2004). Though customising products for different markets increases cost, the adapted products are more likely to fit the needs of the varied range of customers of different countries and become more acceptable; but would command higher margins, generating greater revenues. For example, Procter Gambles (PG) Oil of Olay skin moisturizer has different type of product in different countries, based on research of the need of customers in those countries; instead of just changing the language on the bottle of the same product. Doole and Lowe (1999) suggests within the elements of marketing management products or service image or marketing objective and strategies can be standardised easily than pricing or distribution. Pricing Differentiation Distribution Sales force Sales promotion Product Image Objective strategy Standardisation A firm taking a global approach means they are standardising their marketing activities to some extent and the firms who have multi-domestic approach means they adopt totally different policy for every single market. In one of the important studies on this topic, Cavusgil et al. (1993) concluded that it is difficult to make blanket statements about suitable standardization/adaptation strategy without an examination of (these factors). The preferable option for firms is to take such a strategy which is a mixture of standardisation as well as adaptation of the different elements of marketing management programmes. Most companies around the world globalise some elements of the marketing mix while localising others and they use a combination of multi-domestic, global or regional, and transitional strategies. Many international firms find it difficult to optimally balance standardizing and adapting their marketing, specifically the marketing strategies, across national borders, in order to be successful. Also, in the process of internationalisation, firms need to find the correct approach towards globalisation, regionalisation and localisation of business activities, in general, along with finding a way to transfer the approach to their marketing strategies level (Stefan Schmid and Thomas Kotulla, 2011).

Gang Violence in the United States Essay -- Exploratory Essays Researc

Gang Violence in the United States Gang violence in America is reaching alarming proportions. Chicago police Commander Donald Hilbring states, "Gangs are everywhere. All throughout the city of Chicago, the suburbs, throughout the state, throughout the nation." Chicago police state that so far this year, more than 100 gang-related murders have occurred. Everyday an other report on the evening news relays the tragedy of a child accidently caught in gang crossfire. The image of black, inner-city teenagers selling "crack" on neighborhood street corners and shooting it out over drug "turf" comes to mind whenever we hear the story told. What can we do to understand and remedy this problem before an entire generation is lost? We hear the stories about abused, abandoned children. We hear about drug-addicted mothers and absent fathers. We hear about children forced to fend for themselves in a cold, hard world. It's no wonder kids join gangs. They need someone to care. They are looking for a sense of belonging and family. Yet, not all youngsters who join gangs are looking for a sense of belonging. Often, adult gang members lure teenagers into gang activity. They establish them as drug dealers, use them as car thieves, and often pay them to commit robberies and even shoot rival gang members. Adults use juveniles because the law does not prosecute them in the same manner as adults. Under the current system, the teenagers are back on the streets, and the adults are rarely caught. Just as we assume we know the reasons kids join gangs, we also assume we know who joins gangs. Gang violence is stereotypically thought of as a Black or Latino, inner-city problem. Dr. George Knox, an expert on gangs, says, ... ...her Chicago neighborhood, COP-Citizens on Patrol, a volunteer group, has formed a neighborhood watch group. They patrol the streets and report any suspicious activity to the police. Their presence helps reduce gang activity on the streets of their community. Juvenile justice reform, programs for rehabilitation, and adult concern and involvement are all ways to help remedy the current crisis of gang warfare in our streets. For those youth already involved in gangs, rehabilitation and counseling may help rescue them. For those youth who refuse to give up the gang lifestyle and crime, tougher juvenile laws should put them in jail, away from other children and the rest of society. Finally, parents and community members need to care. Children who grow with parental guidance, in an environment of care and concern, are much less likely to fall prey to gangs.

Sexual Orientation and Body Image Dysmorphia :: Sexuality Homosexuality Essays

Sexual Orientation and Body Image Dysmorphia Recent research has concluded that sexual orientation, in both men and women, may play a significant role in the feelings of dissatisfaction of one’s physical appearance and the development and onset of disordered eating habits. Numerous studies have found that homosexual men have a higher likelihood of being more dissatisfied with their overall physical appearance. It is not so clear for homosexual women. In this paper I will review a number of published research article and try to more clearly explain the contrasting results about homosexual women. ADOLESCENT SEXUAL ORIENTATION Although most of the studies look at an adult population, a study by French, Story, Remafedi, and Resnik, examined the effects of sexual orientation on an adolescent population. In their study they looked at a population based sample of about 35,000 students between the grades of seven and twelve. Each of these students completed a survey that asked questions about sexual orientation, body satisfaction, and different weight control measures. The final report included the findings from 212 heterosexual males and 182 heterosexual females for comparison with 81 self- identifying homosexual males and 38 self- identifying homosexual females, and 131 bisexual males and 144 bisexual females. They discovered that homosexual males were much more likely than heterosexual males to report having a poor body image (27.8% to 12%) and admit to frequent dieting (8.9% to 5.5%), binge eating (25.0% to 10.6%), or purging (11.7% to 4.4%). On the other side, homosexual females were more likely than heterosexual females to report that they were happy with the way that they looked (42.1% to 20.5%). Interestingly though, homosexual and heterosexual females were about equally as likely to diet, participate in binge eating, and partake in purging. PROBLEMS WITH STUDY Although the study seems to be appropriate, one must be wary about looking at a study, which was conducted through the use of surveys. This is particularly true when you are asking adolescents questions that deal with sexuality. It is possible that an adolescent’s embarrassment could be a factor in the answering of the questions. Social stereotypes could easily influence a heterosexual male to answer positively to questions about his body image because body angst is usually associated as a female behavior. This study is important to research on this topic because it shows that from the beginning of sexual orientation decisions, eating habits are a priority to some. Finicky and disordered eating problems are not something that develops later in life.

Suffragist Movement in America Essay -- Exploratory Essays Research Pa

Suffragist Movement in America On July 14, 1848, the American women’s suffrage movement was born. Lucretia Mott, Martha C. Wright, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Mary Ann McClintock decided to call a meeting on that day at the Wesleyan Methodist Chapel in Seneca Falls; they discussed women's rights at what became known as the Seneca Falls Convention. Within this female discussion panel, the women historically announced through the â€Å"Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions† the beginning of their movement to win women the right to vote in political elections. American women demanded suffrage because they believed that it was the most crucial characteristic of full-citizenship. The underlying implication for this demand was that the women believed in the existence of their inalienable rights. When exercised, these natural rights maintain that women â€Å"should enjoy individual rights of self-government, rather than relying on indirect civic participation as the mothers, sisters, or daughters of male voters† (Pleck 1). Furthermore, woman suffrage asserted that women have the right to choose their own representatives. Guaranteeing women’s enfranchisement was difficult because of the approval women had to win from a male electorate that viewed the movement as ridiculous. Scores of men believed that women were in no way suited to take on the responsibility of voting. In fact, it was expected of many anti-suffragists and even respected psychologists to assume that the women who fought for suffrage were mentally ill. H.W. Frink believed that â€Å"a certain proportion of the†¦suffragists are neurotics who in some instances are compensating for masculine trends, in others, are more or less succ... ...men eventually received nationwide suffrage through a constitutional amendment, which was ratified by the states in August 1920. In the end American woman were granted the right to vote because of their significant participation during World War I. Annotation Movement Divisions. http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/~mcevoy/movement.html. 16 November 2002. This website focused on the division that arose within the women’s suffrage movement and how the movement ended to win women the right to vote. Goldstein-LeVande, Meredith. Women’s Suffrage Introduction. http://www.history.rochester.edu/class/suffrage/home.htm. 16 November 2002. This website documented anti-suffragist sentiments. Pleck, Elizabeth H. Women’s Suffrage. http://gi.grolier.com/presidents/ea/side/wsffrg.html. 16 November 2002. This website is a worldwide overview of women’s struggle for suffrage.

Development Of A Surface Runoff Prediction Model Environmental Sciences Essay

The on-going enlargement of urbanised countries has placed increasing accent on related H2O direction jobs such as implosion therapy and pollution control. Urbanization increases the imperviable land country in a part, which in bend, decreases infiltration, increases overflow, and decreases the clip during which overflow occurs. Liu et al. , ( 2004 ) stated that as a watershed becomes more developed, it besides becomes more hydrologically active and in so making, changes the inundation volume, overflow constituents every bit good as the beginning of watercourse flow. The consequence is that inundations that one time occurred infrequently during the pre-development periods frequently become more frequent and more terrible due to the transmutation of the watershed from rural to urban land utilizations. Previous research has besides shown that urbanisation and the addition in imperviable surfaces increases peak discharge ( Ferguson and Suckling 1990 ; Booth and Jackson 1997 ) . Galster et al. , ( 2006 ) examined the effects of imperviable surfaces within urbanised landscapes on river discharge within drainage countries and found it to be nonlinear for extremum flows in little urbanised countries. The survey was conducted in two immediate and physically similar water partings in east-central Pennsylvania but which had different per centum urban land usage ( 20 % and 3 % severally ) , and tested the premise that discharge exhibits a additive or close additive relationship with drainage country ( hundred ~ 1 ) for an urbanised water parting. Linear grading of discharge with drainage country has the deduction that all parts of the drainage basin contribute about the same volume of H2O at about the same rate as either overflow or as recharge to the H2O tabular array ( Fleckenstein et al. 2004 ) . Galster et al. , ( 2006 ) argued that in the urban watershed they studied, they observed that the part of H2O from each unit of the drainage country was non equal with the downstream urbanised country lending a greater volume per unit country than the upstream forested or rural countries over the clip period represented by the extremum flows. The decision was hence that urbanisation reduces the infiltration capacity and increase overflow.Runoff DeterminationRunoff is generated by rainstorms and the happening and measure are dependent on the features of the peculiar rainfall event, i.e. strength, continuance and distribution. Water making the land surface infiltrates into the dirt until it reaches a phase where the rate of rainfall ( strength ) exceeds the infiltration capacity of the dirt. The infiltration capacity of the dirt depends on its texture and construction, every bit good as on the antecedent dirt wet status. The initial infiltration capacity of a dry dirt is hig h but, as the storm continues, it decreases until it reaches a steady value termed as concluding infiltration rate. [ The procedure of overflow coevals continues every bit long as the rainfall strength exceeds the existent infiltration capacity of the dirt but will halt every bit shortly as the rate of rainfall beads below the existent rate of infiltration. The infiltration capacity of dirt will change depending on both the dirt texture and construction. Soil composed of a high per centum of sand consequences in rapid infiltration because these dirts have big, good connected pore infinites. Clay soils on the other manus have low infiltration rates due to their smaller pore sized infinites. However, there is really less entire pore infinite in a unit volume of coarse, flaxen dirt than that of dirt composed largely of clay. As a consequence, sandy dirts fill quickly and normally bring forth overflow quicker than clay dirts ( Ritter, 2006 ) Baharudin 2007. Ms. Thesis ] Ritter 2006 – The Physical Environment ]Impact of Urbanization on Infiltration CapacityInfiltration is the procedure by which precipitation percolates downward through the dirt and replenishes dirt wet, recharges the aquifers, and finally supports watercourse flows during dry periods. The rate of infiltration ( degree Fahrenheit ) is influenced by several factors which includes the type and extent of vegetive screen, the status of the surface crust, temperature, rainfall strength, physical belongingss of the dirt and H2O quality ( Viessman Jr. and Lewis 2003 ; Liu et Al. 2004 ) . Research has shown that one of the most outstanding land usage impacting hydrology is urban development ( Finkenbine et al. , 2000 ; Lee and Bang, 2000 ; Bledsoe and Watson, 2001 ; Rose and Peters, 2001 ; Brezonik and Stadelmann, 2002 ) . Surveies have besides shown that additions in the proportion of imperviable surface ( IS ) of 10 % may significantly impact watercourse hydrology ( Hammer, 1972 ; Hollis, 1975 ) . Hydrological effects of increased IS typically result in elevated quickflow coevals which produces both higher magnitudes and increase early extremums in storm hydrographs ( Dunne and Leopold, 1978 ; Hirsch et al. , 1990 ) . Goudie ( 1990 ) , describes urbanisation as the transition of other types of land utilizations associated with the growing of population and the economic system. This procedure has a considerable hydrological impact in footings of act uponing the nature of overflow and other hydrological features. Impact nevertheless varies harmonizing to the phase of development every bit good. In the early phases, the remotion of trees and flora may diminish the evapotranspiration and interception and may besides increase deposit in rivers. Subsequently in the development of these countries when building of houses, streets, and culverts Begins, the impacts may include reduced infiltration, lowered groundwater tabular array, increased storm H2O flows, and decreased base flows during dry periods. After the development of these residential and commercial edifices has been completed, increased impenetrability will finally cut down the clip of overflow and concentration so that extremum discharges are h igher and occur Oklahoman after rainfall starts in basins. The volume of overflow and inundation harm potency is hence greatly increased. Furthermore, the installing of cloacas and storm drains accelerates overflow. Pitt et al. , ( 2002 ) reported that natural infiltration is significantly reduced in urban countries due to several factors: the reduced country of exposed dirts, remotion of surface dirts and exposing subsurface dirts, and besides the compression of dirts during Earth traveling and building operations. The reduced countries of dirts are typically associated with increased overflow volumes and peak flow rates. Land usage and land screen alterations have both direct and indirect impacts on the hydrological rhythm, H2O quality, measure available to drinkable H2O, and clime. The four major impacts of land usage alteration includes: addition or reduced incidences of inundations and drouths, alterations in river and groundwater governments, and besides the negative or positive impact H2O quality ( Roger 1994 ; Kim et Al. 2002 ) . In add-on there are besides indirect impacts on clime and later impact on H2O quality and measure. Kim et al. , ( 2002 ) in a survey of land-use alterations at both NASA ‘s John F. Kennedy Space Center ( KSC ) and the Indian River Lagoon ( IRL ) watershed, an addition in overflow of 49 % and 113 % severally from KSC and IRL over the period 1920-1990 was observed. Most of the addition in overflow came from urban landscape although increased agricultural land uses in the IRL besides contributed to increased overflow. Large differences in estimated overflow were due to differences in the sum of urban land usage within the several countries 35 % for the IRL versus 21 % for KSC. Harmonizing to Kim et al. , ( 2002 ) , land-use alteration can hold a dramatic impact on one-year overflow volume, therefore the effects of land-use alteration on one-year or long-run overflow should be considered in land-use planning.SCS CN methodThe sum of overflow produced by a watershed is chiefly controlled by both the ability of the dirt to â€Å" soak up † precipitation and the sum and type of vegetive screen found on the surface of the dirt. Acknowledging this, the United states Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) NRCS ( antecedently called the Soil Conservation Service, SCS ) developed in the 1950 ‘s a method for gauging the volume of direct overflow from rainfall. This figure varies from 0 ( rainfall bring forthing no overflow ) to 100 ( all rainfall runs off ) . The SCS curve figure is the most widely used method because of its comparative simplene ss. Curve figure defines the watershed storage and is determined for a watershed or sub-watershed preponderantly from the types of dirts, vegetive screen, and land-use features. The CN method is an empirical attack to gauging direct overflow and was developed for little agricultural water partings. During a rainfall event, there is a threshold which must be exceeded before overflow occurs and for this threshold to be exceeded, the storm must fulfill interception, depression storage, and infiltration volume. The rainfall required to fulfill the above status is termed initial abstraction ( Ia ) . It includes H2O retained in surface depressions, H2O intercepted by flora, and H2O lost to vaporization and infiltration. Initial abstraction is nevertheless extremely variable but is by and large correlated with the type of dirt and cover stuff. After rainfall begins, accrued infiltration additions with increasing rainfall up to some maximal keeping point and as rainfall additions, overflow besides increases. The ratio of existent keeping to maximal keeping is assumed to be equal to the ratio of direct overflow to rainfall minus initial abstraction. Mathematically the H2O balance of a storm event can be expressed as: for P & gt ; Ia ( Eq. 1 ) Where: F = existent keeping ( millimeter ) S = possible upper limit keeping ( millimeter ) Q = accumulated overflow deepness ( millimeter ) P = possible upper limit overflow ( millimeter ) I, = initial abstraction ( millimeter ) After overflow has started, all extra rainfall becomes either overflow or existent keeping ( i.e. the existent keeping is the difference between rainfall minus initial abstraction and overflow ) . F = ( P- Ia ) – Q ( Eq. 2 ) Uniting Equations 1 and 2 outputs ( Eq. 3 ) Field informations indicated that initial abstraction was by and large in the part of 20 % of the maximal keeping for an single storm. The standard premise used therefore is that Ia = 0.2S ( SCS 1985 ) , where â€Å" 0.2 † was based on watershed measurings with a big grade of variableness. Other research workers have reported utilizing values runing from 0.0 to 0.3 ( SCS 1985 ; Ponce and Hawkins 1996 ) . The original estimations of Ia were determined by deducting rain that fell prior to the beginning of watershed response from the entire rainfall, measured at the mercantile establishment ( SCS 1985 ) . Ia = 0.2S ( Eq. 4 ) This relation can be inserted into Equation 1 to give the followers: ( Eq. 5 ) The possible maximal keeping can run from nothing on a smooth, imperviable surface to eternity in deep crushed rock countries. The â€Å" S-values † can be converted to runoff curve Numberss ( CN ‘s ) by the undermentioned transmutation: ( when H2O deepnesss are expressed in inches ) or ( Eq. 6 ) ( when H2O deepnesss are expressed in millimeter ) Figure 1 shows the graphical solution of Equation 5, bespeaking values of overflow deepness Q as a map of rainfall deepness P for selected values of CN. For illustration, paved countries, S will be zero and CN will be 100 i.e. all rainfall will go overflow. For extremely permeable, flat-lying dirts, S will travel to eternity and CN will ‘ be zero i.e. all rainfall will infiltrate and there will be no overflow. Besides where entire effectual rainfall peers direct runoff the CN value will be 100. Figure 1. Graphic solution of Equation 4.5 demoing overflow deepness Q as a map of rainfall deepness P and swerve figure CN ( after SCS 1972 ) .Antecedent Moisture Condition, AMC ) .Antecedent wet status ( AMC ) is an indicant of the wetness of the watershed and the handiness of dirt wet storage prior to a storm. Ponce and Hawkins ( 1996 ) indicated that curve figure can be adjusted to gauge less overflow under dry conditions and more overflow under wet conditions. AMC hence, can hold a important consequence on overflow. Soil AMC is determined by the rainfall sum 5 yearss prior to the event of involvement. AMC 1 applies if the 5-day ancestor rainfall is less than 36 millimeter. AMC II and III refers to 5-day antecedent rainfall 36- 53 millimeter and greater than 53 millimeter severally.Hydrologic dirt groupsThe NRCS classified over 8,500 dirt series into four hydrologic groups harmonizing to their infiltration features. The hydrologic groups have been designated as A, B, C, and D and description of each dirt group are provided in the Table 1 below ;Table 1: Hydrological Soil Group and Infiltration CharacteristicsSoil GroupDescriptionInfiltration Rate( mm/h )DirtA Lowest overflow potency. Includes deep littorals with really small silt and clay, besides deep, quickly permeable loess. These dirts considered to hold a low overflow potency and a high infiltration rate even when exhaustively wetted, e.g. deep overly drained littorals and crushed rocks. 8-12 Sand, loamy sand, flaxen loam. Bacillus Reasonably low overflow potency. Mostly sandy dirts less deep than A, and loess less but the group as a whole has above-average infiltration after thorough wetting i.e. dirts have a moderate infiltration rate when exhaustively wetted e.g. shallow loess and flaxen loam. 4-8 Silt loam, loam. C Reasonably high overflow potency. Comprises shallow dirts and dirts incorporating considerable clay and colloids, though less than those of group D. The group has below-average infiltration after presaturation e.g. clay loams, shallow sandy loam and dirt with low organic content. 1-4 Sandy clay loam.CalciferolHighest overflow potency. Includes largely clays of high swelling possible, but the group besides includes some shoal dirts with about impermeable some shallow dirts with about impermeable subhorizons near the surface. These dirts have a high potency for overflow, since they have really slow infiltration rates when exhaustively wetted 0-1 Clay loam, silty clay loam, clay, flaxen clay, silty clay. Beginning: SCS, 1975 ; Schulze et al. , 1996Cover typeCover type affects overflow in several ways, the leaf and its litter maintains the dirt ‘s infiltration potency by forestalling the impact of the raindrops from sealing the dirt surface. Other factors, such as the per centum of imperviable country and the agencies of conveying overflow from imperviable countries to the drainage system should be considered in calculating CN for urban countries. Table 2 describes the CN value for a combination of land usage description and hydrologic dirt group.Table2. Land Use Description and Curve NumbersDescription of Land UseHydrologic Soil GroupAABacillusCCalciferolPaved parking tonss, roofs, private roads98 98 98 98Streets and Roadss:A A A A Paved with kerbs and storm cloacas 98 98 98 98 A A A A Gravel 76 85 89 91 A A A A Dirt 72 82 87 89Cultivated ( Agricultural Crop ) Land* :A A A A Without preservation intervention ( no patios ) 72 81 88 91 A A A A With preservation intervention ( patios, contours ) 62 71 78 81Pasture or Range Land:A A A A Poor ( & lt ; 50 % land screen or to a great extent grazed ) 68 79 86 89 A A A A Good ( 50-75 % land screen ; non to a great extent grazed ) 39 61 74 80Meadow ( grass, no graze, mowed for hay )30 58 71 78Brush ( good, & gt ; 75 % land screen )30 48 65 73Forests and Forests:A A A A Poor ( little trees/brush destroyed by over-grazing or combustion ) 45 66 77 83 A A A A Fair ( croping but non burned ; some coppice ) 36 60 73 79 A A A A Good ( no graze ; brush screens land ) 30 55 70 77Open Spaces ( lawns, Parkss, golf classs, graveyards, etc. ) :A A A A Fair ( grass covers 50-75 % of country ) 49 69 79 84 A A A A Good ( grass covers & gt ; 75 % of country ) 39 61 74 80Commercial and Business Districts ( 85 % imperviable )89 92 94 95Industrial Districts ( 72 % imperviable )81 88 91 93Residential Areas:A A A A 1/8 Acre tonss, approximately 65 % imperviable 77 85 90 92 A A A A 1/4 Acre tonss, approximately 38 % imperviable 61 75 83 87 A A A A 1/2 Acre tonss, approximately 25 % imperviable 54 70 80 85 A A A A 1 Acre tonss, approximately 20 % imperviable 51 68 79 84from Chow et Al. ( 1988 )Appraisal of CN values for Urban Land UsesUrbanized water partings are those in which imperviable surfaces cover a considerable per centum of an country. These imperviable surfaces include roads, pavements, parking tonss, and edifices. In these countries, natural flow waies in the water parting may be replaced or supplemented by paved troughs, storm cloacas, or other elements of unreal drainage. Urbanization therefore alterations a water parting ‘s response to precipitation. The most common effects are reduced infiltration and decreased travel clip which significantly increase peak discharges and overflow ( SCS 1986 ) . Urban CN values ( Table 3 ) were developed for typical land usage relationships based on specific assumed per centums of imperviable country. These CN valleies were developed based on the premises that ( a ) pervious urban countries are tantamount to crop in good hydrologic status and ( B ) imperviable countries have a CN of 98 and are straight connected to the drainage system. Some assumed per centums of imperviable country are shown in Table 3 ( SCS 1986 ) . Of involvement from Table 3 is the description used to sort residential countries. A widely used method of sorting urban land usage is the Anderson Level III categorization ( Anderson, et al. , 1976 ) , which makes the undermentioned differentiations: ( 1 ) low denseness residential land usage ( 0-5 brooding units per hectare ) , ( 2 ) medium denseness residential land usage ( 5-20 brooding units per hectare ) , and ( 3 ) townhouse-garden flat land usage ( & gt ; 20 brooding units per hectare ) . The definition for urbanised water partings used by Cappiella et Al. ( 2005 ) was countries holding more than 10 % entire imperviable screen. Impervious screen includes any surface that does non let H2O to infiltrate, such as roads, edifices, parking tonss, and private roads. Crawford-Tilley, et Al. ( 1996 ) on the other manus, used a residential denseness of three houses per hectare as a threshold for urbanised land usage. Many hydrologic theoretical accounts use the CN method to gauge direct overflow from Fieldss or water partings. However, change of the hydrologic dirt group due to the effects of urbanisation frequently consequences from compression lending to structural debasement of the dirt. In urbanised water partings, land surfaces frequently become less pervious due to perturbation of the established dirt construction ensuing in increased overflow. Thus the usage of the original dirt study information for urbanised countries is frequently a hapless premise because important compression and perturbation of the dirt that has taken topographic point chiefly due to earthwork operations ( Holman-Dodds et al. 2003, Gregory et Al. 1999 ) .Table 3 Runoff Curve Numbers for Urban AreasBeginning: Scandium 1986Determination of overflow volume on inclining landscapeWatersheds in the Caribbean and in many parts of the universe are characterized by inclining landscape. Factors that control infiltration rate i nclude dirt belongingss that are strongly affected by three forces. These forces are, hydraulic conduction, diffusivity and H2O keeping capacity. These dirt belongingss are related to the features of dirt texture, construction, composing, and grade of compression, which influence dirt matric forces and pore infinite. In add-on, antecedent wet status, type of vegetative or other land screen, incline, rainfall strength and motion every bit good as entrapment of dirt air are of import factors that besides affect infiltration rates.Minidisk InfiltrometerAccumulative infiltration, I, is described by the undermentioned map ( Eq.7 ) Where T is clip, C1 and C2 are parametric quantities specifying the sorptive and hydraulic conduction, severally ( Phillips, 1969 ) .Relationship between majority denseness and infiltrationThe Ocean County Soil Conservation District ( 2001 ) , in New Jersey, conducted a survey on the effects of dirt alteration and compression on infiltration rates during building operations in urban countries. This survey was to find whether the effects of building activities were sufficient to change the hydrologic dirt group categorization. Measurements of majority denseness and infiltration rates were conducted both in situ to and demo that as dirt majority denseness increases to 1.65 g/cm3, the infiltration rate lessenings quickly. The survey besides showed that with an addition in bulk denseness above 1.65 g/cm3, infiltration rate diminutions easy, nearing zero therefore ensuing in permeableness going the confining factor for infiltration into the dirt profile. The permeableness measurings were so used to develop a technique to gauge infiltration rates of densenesss non specifically measured. The expression from the unmoved informations derived from plotting the graph of permeableness against bulk denseness ( Figure 2 ) resulted in the undermentioned expression ; [ Permeability = ( 42198 ) ( Bulk Density ) -21.255 ] . Figure 2. Graph demoing the relationship between majority denseness and permeableness ( Ocean County Soil Conservation District 2001 ) The consequences indicated that the overflow from many late constructed lodging developments exceeds the simulated overflow based on the CN method utilizing undisturbed hydrologic dirt group values. The survey besides showed that the hydrologic dirt group at late urbanized sites that was recorded as dirt group A or B, based on dirt study informations and texture, recorded infiltration rates of less than 0.38 cm/hr, proposing Hydrologic dirt group C or D. The Ocean County Soil Conservation District ( 2001 ) survey concluded that building operations significantly compact the dirt, ensuing in the change of the hydrologic dirt group categorization. The survey hence recommended that contrivers and interior decorators should account for the effects of dirt compression when gauging overflow. Curse Holman-Dobbs et Al. ( 2003 ) besides observed that land surfaces have become less pervious due to perturbation of set up dirt construction in urbanised water partings, which consequences in increased flow. Treading promotes surface dirt compression and waterproofing ( Warren et al. , 1986 ) . The usage of the original hydrological dirt group value for urbanised countries is hence a hapless premise because earthwork operations frequently result in important compacted and disturbed dirt ( Gregory et al. 1999 ) . Soil infiltration trials on loamy dirts to analyze the effects of age of urbanisation on dirt infiltration rates were conducted by the Wisconsin Deptartment of Natural Resources and the University of Wisconsin. The preliminary trials consequences indicated that every bit long as several decennaries could be necessary earlier compacted loam dirts recover to conditions similar to pre-development conditions ( Pitt, et Al. 2002 ) . Pitt, et Al. ( 2002 ) hence concluded that really big mistakes in dirt infiltration rates can easy be made with the usage of published dirt maps are used along with available theoretical account for typically disturbed urban dirts, as these tools ignore the effects of compression. The writer farther stated that cognition of compression can be used to more accurately predict stormwater overflow measure, and to better design bioretention stormwater control structures. Dirts that are left au naturel due to urbanisation and addition traffic by occupants frequently consequences in dirt crusting and decreased infiltration. This was reported by Blackburn ( 1989 ) , who observed that exposure of bare dirt to climate fluctuations enhances dirt crusting and slaking and as a consequence, infiltration of dirts was lower on bare dirt than beneath trees and bushs. Holman et Al ( 2003 ) observed that dirt construction debasement on farms in England and Wales during land direction operations, such as ploughing or harvest home led to compression and structural harm of the dirt i.e. the transition of wheels over the dirt surface lead to compression of the upper parts of the surface soil. This compression leads to decrease in dirt H2O storage and infiltration capacity therefore cut downing the ability of the dirt to absorb rain and cause addition implosion therapy. For this survey dirt construction conditions were linked via the hydrological dirt group, dirt conditions and antecedent rainfall conditions to SCS curve Numberss to measure the volume of enhanced overflow in each catchment. Land usage controls the infiltration of dirts. Other surveies have besides shown that ploughing agricultural lands produces dirt compression ( Voorhes and Lindstrom, 1984 ; Blackwell et al. , 1985 ; Allegre et al. , 1986 ; Hartge, 1988 ) . Because denseness of the la rgest dirt pores is reduced by the compression mechanism, the infiltration rate is besides diminished ( Hartge, 1988 ) . Van Der Plas and Bruijnzeel ( 1993 ) observed that the impact of selected logging of the rain forest in Malaysia resulted in soils compression by tractor path well increased the frequence and volume of over land flow. The survey was done on 10-35 % inclining land mensurating the surface soil ( 0-30cm ) majority denseness and steady-state infiltration utilizing the dual ring method. Infiltration trial in the logged-over wood were made on former tractor paths and in the next retrieving forest. The consequences indicated that mean bulk densenesss increased with deepness in both woods ( scope in undisturbed wood: 0.98-1.26 g cm-3 and logged-over wood outside tractor paths: 1.11-1.35 g cm-3 ) . For the sparsely vegetated tractor paths fluctuation was much less ( scope: 1.31-1.37 g cm-3 ) . Topsoil majority denseness ( 0-18 centimeter ) was extremely correlated with steady-state infiltration rates and the mean values were 88 ( undisturbed wood ) , 73 ( retrieving forest ) , and 15 millimet ers h-1 ( 12-year-old tractor paths ) .Use of GIS in Watershed moldSeveral surveies have been done to integrate GIS into watershed hydrologic patterning. These can be grouped into: I ) calculation of input parametric quantities for bing hydrologic theoretical accounts ; two ) function and show of hydrologic variables ; three ) watershed surface representation ; and iv ) designation of hydrologic response units. Two of import countries where GIS has contributed to hydrological mold are that of hydrological stock list and appraisal and good as hydrological parametric quantity finding.Hydrological Inventory and AppraisalThe usage of GIS for hydrological stock list and appraisal involves the usage of GIS for mapping hydrological factors that pertain to some state of affairs, normally as a agency of hazard appraisal ( Maidment, 1993 ) . The developments in geographical information systems ( GIS ) engineering have coincided with moves within hydrology to supplying a more expressed account ing of infinite through distributed instead than lumped or topological representations. With GIS there is the ability to hive away, arrange, retrieve, classify, manipulate, analyze and present immense spatial informations and information in a simple mode. GIS supports spacial informations theoretical accounts and supply integration, mensurating and analytical capablenesss which are now been used in many hydrological applications runing from stock list and appraisal surveies to treat mold ( McDonnel, 1996 ) . Aspinall and Pearson ( 2000 ) used GIS to develop a series of indexs of H2O catchment wellness for the Yellowstone River in the Rocky Mountain USA, as portion of a geographic audit of environmental wellness and alteration at the regional graduated table. Sirnivasan et Al, ( 1998 ) identified GIS as one constituent to pull off spacial input and end product in the designing of a national river basin graduated table resource appraisal in developing the Hydrologic Unit Model for the United States ( HUMUS ) .Hydrological Parameter DeterminationThe usage of GIS for theoretical account parametric quantity appraisal is a really active country of research ( Maidment, 1993 ; McDonnell, 1996 ) . The aim is to find the parametric quantities that will be used as input into hydrological theoretical accounts by analysis of terrain and land screen characteristics such as incline, channel length, land usage and dirt features ( Maidment, 1993 ) . Digital lift theoretical accounts ( DEMs ) have become utile tools for hydrological mold in ungauged water partings because topographic parametric quantities can now be rapidly and expeditiously derived utilizing GIS. These topographic parametric quantities help to specify the construction of water partings which give a specific hydrological signature and drainage form. It can be shown that landform form and features influence the flow of H2O, transit of deposits and pollutants. GIS provide an environment within which topographic parametric quantities can be rapidly and expeditiously extracted for hydrological application and as a consequence, DEMs are progressively being used ( Armstrong and Martz, 2003 ; Martz and Garbrecht, 1998 ) . DaRos and Borga, ( 1997 ) stated that the application of GIS provides an efficient and accurate agencies for the rating of watershed features and deducing structural instantaneous unit hydrographs ( GIUH ) . The survey showed that hydrologic response of a watershed is influenced by many factors some of which include dirt belongingss ( e.g. , infiltration capacity, dirt deepness, and porousness ) , morphological belongingss ( e.g. , drainage country, incline, channel length, drainage denseness, and alleviation ratio ) , geologic belongingss ( e.g. , lithologic and structural geologic belongingss ) , and set down screen and land usage ( e.g. , per centum forest, agricultural, and urban screen ) . For ungauged catchments, structural instantaneous unit hydrographs have been proposed as a tool to imitate overflow hydrographs. Harmonizing to Olivera and Maidment ( 1998 ) , GIS provides tools that allow one to travel from lumped to spatially distributed hydrologic theoretical accounts. GIS provided an first-class environment for patterning spatially distributed hydrologic procedures. This is so because they have spacial maps in the vector and raster sphere ( some of which are specifically developed for hydrologic intents ) and a database direction system, which combined, let one to execute hydrologic mold and computations that are connected to geographic locations. Weng ( 2001 ) on the other manus used the advantage of GIS engineering for incorporating GIS with distant feeling engineering and successfully applied these engineerings to come up overflow patterning. His survey uses GIS to deduce two cardinal parametric quantities: rainfall and hydrological dirt groups. Based on these informations and land screen digital informations, the surface overflow images could be obtained through the map algebra and overlay maps of GIS. Thus, the integrating has automated the SCS mold. Similarly other surveies have demonstrated the usage of GIS-based systems to develop parametric quantity estimations ( Stuebe and Johnson, 1990 ; Green and Cruise, 1995 ; De Smedt et al. , 2000 ; Liu et Al, 2004 ; Olivera and Maidment, 1999 ) and for CN computation ( Engel, 1997 ; Xu, 2006 ; Gumbo et Al, 2001 ; Halley et al. , 2007 ) .CN Determination utilizing GISCraciun et.al ( 2007 ) in his survey tested a theoretical account of hydric overflow appraisal ( SCS CN ) , based on the calculus relation of hydric balance, in which GIS was used in the analysis of parametric quantities that compose the equation of the theoretical account. The parametric quantities which are included in the concretion of the hydric volume entered in the basin system can be customized and computed, successfully, by utilizing the GIS. Craciun et.al ( 2007 ) concluded that uniting GIS maps with the SCS-CN theoretical account, for analyzing the overflow on a watershed degree, can be an efficient solution in the context of a uninterrupted addition in the demand of calculating the hydric jeopardies. M. MANCINI & A ; R. ROSSO ( 1989 ) Calibration of Soil Conservation Service Curve Number ( CN ) is performed within a distributed model. This is based on the detailed information from the Geographic Information System ( GIS ) Spatial variableness of Curve Number has been investigated in order to analyze ( I ) the extension of local countries which can be taken as homogenous, ( two ) the common relationships among different countries in the basin, and ( three ) the local variableness of overflow estimations.Runoff HydrographHydrologist and applied scientists depend on measured or computed hydrographs to supply extremum flow rates that is so used to plan hydraulic constructions to suit flows safely. Hydrographs besides allows for the analysis of sizes of reservoirs, storage armored combat vehicles, detainment pools, and other installations that accommodate volumes of overflow ( Viessman Jr. and Lewis 2003 ) . A hydrograph is basically a secret plan of rate against clip with the country beneath the hydrograph between any two points in clip giving the entire volume of H2O go throughing a peculiar point of involvement during the clip interval.Unit of measurement HydrographThe construct of unit hydrograph was foremost introduced by Sherman ( 1932 ) and can be described as a hydrograph of stormflow from 1 unit of effectual rainfall happening at a unvarying rate over a peculiar period and some specific areal distribution over the watershed. The hydrograph demoing the ra tes at which overflow occurred can be considered a unit graph for a peculiar water parting ( Viessman Jr. and Lewis 2003 ; Brooks et Al. 1997 ) . As a watershed becomes more urbanised, the impact of increasing imperviable country, decreased potency for infiltration into the dirt, and loss of natural depression storage will alter the response to rainfall and therefore the form ( top out and clip base ) of the ensuing overflow hydrograph. Figure 3 shows the relationship between a storm or rainfall event the unit hydrograph developed and direct overflow. Runoff normally occurs after the initial abstraction or storage capacity of the dirt is satisfied. Figure 3: Relationship between storm, unit hydrograph, and direct overflow hydrograph ( McCuen 1989 )Rational MethodThe most widely used method for planing drainage installations for little urban and rural water partings is the Rational Method. Mathematically, the rational method relates the peak discharge ( Q ) to the drainage country ( A ) , the rainfall strength ( I ) , and the overflow coefficient ( C ) . Using this method, extremum flow is expressed as Qp = CIA ( Eq. 13 ) Where Qp = the peak overflow rate ( m3/sec ) C = the overflow coefficient ( dimensionless ) I = the mean rainfall strength ( mm/hr ) for a storm with continuance equal a critical period of clip technetium A = size of drainage country ( Km2 ) The value of C is dependent on the dirt, land usage screen status and rainfall features. Time of concentration ( tc ) of the water parting is the clip that is required for H2O to go from the most distant subdivision of the watershed to the mercantile establishment point one time the status of dirt impregnation and minor depressions are filled. Time of concentration influences the form and extremum of the overflow hydrograph and is affected by surface raggedness, channel form, flow form and incline. Time of concentration can be calculated utilizing the Kirpich method ( 1940 ) which was developed from SCS informations for seven rural basins in Tennessee. The water partings used in developing this expression had good defined channels and steep inclines ( 3 % to 10 % ) . The Kirpich expression is as follows: ( Eq. 14 ) Where: technetium = clip of concentration ( min. ) L = the maximal hydraulic flow length ( foot ) H = the difference in lift between the watershed mercantile establishment and hydraulicly most distant point in the water parting ( ft/ft ) The cogency of the rational method is based on the set of premises some of which are listed below along with identified failings ( Thompson et al. 2003 ; Viessman Jr. and Lewis 2003 )Premises in the Rational Method:Rainfall occurs at a unvarying strength over the full country of the watershed for a specific continuance that is at least equal to the clip of concentration of the water parting. Peak rate of overflow can be reflected by the rainfall averaged over a clip period equal to the clip of concentration of the drainage country. The return period of the overflow event is the same as the return period of the precipitation event.Failings of the Rational Method:Appraisal of technetium. Particularly critical for little watershed where technetium is short and alterations in design strengths can happen rapidly. Reflects merely the extremum and gives no indicant of the volume or the clip distribution of the overflow. Lumps many watershed variables into one overflow coefficient. Provides small penetration into our apprehension of overflow processes – particularly in instances where watershed conditions vary greatly across the water parting. This method is a great simplism of a complicated procedure ; nevertheless, the method is considered sufficiently accurate for overflow appraisal in the design of comparatively cheap constructions where the effects of failure are limited. Application of rational method is usually limited to water partings of less than 800 hour angle.SCS Triangular Unit HydrographThe SCS triangular unit hydrograph was developed by Victor Mockus in the 1950s and is used to build a man-made unit hydrographs. This hydrograph is based on a dimensionless hydrograph derived from analysis of a big figure of unit hydrographs which varied in size and geographic locations ( SCS 1972 ; Viessman Jr and Lewis 2003 ) . The hydrograph ordinate values are expressed as a dimensionless ratio of discharge to top out discharge ( q/qp ) and abscissa values are ratios of clip to clip to top out ( t/Tp ) ( Figure 4 ) . The SCS triangular unit hydrograph is frequently used in concurrence with CN overflow equation to transform overflow volume into matching discharge hydrograph ( Stone, 1995 ) . scs_uhg Figure 4: SCS Dimensionless unit hydrograph and mass curve ( SCS 1972 ) The dimensionless unit hydrograph can be represented by a triangular form. The relationships between major hydrograph constituents, presented in Figure 5, were derived for the geometric characteristics of a trigon. By utilizing the geometry of the trigons ( country = 1/2 base times height ) , the triangular unit hydrograph has 37.5 % ( or 3/8 ) of its volume on the lifting side and the staying 62.5 % ( or 5/8 ) of the volume on the recession side. scs_uhg_triangle Figure 5: Illustration of dimensionless curvilineal unit hydrograph and the tantamount triangular hydrograph ( SCS 1972 ) . The SCS CN method is based on constituents and their dealingss. The method requires the finding of the clip to top out and the peak discharge expressed as follows: ( Eq.15 ) Where: thallium = lag clip in hours cubic decimeter = length of the longest drainage way in pess S = ( 25400/CN ) – 254 ( CN = curve figure ) Y = norm watershed incline in % ( Eq.16 ) Where tp = clip from get downing of rainfall to top out discharge ( H ) D = continuance of rainfall ( H ) thallium = slowdown clip from the centroid of rainfall to top out discharge ( H ) The continuance of rainfall ( D ) can be expressed utilizing the undermentioned expression: ( Eq. 17 ) SCS ( 1972 ) relates clip of concentration ( technetium ) , to dawdle clip ( thallium ) , by: ( Eq. 18 ) The recession clip ( tr ) , and clip of extremum ( tp ) is related as follows: ( Eq. 19 ) H is a changeless and can be obtained from Table 5.Table 5: Hydrograph top outing factors and recession limb ratioGeneral DescriptionTop outing Factor( H )Limb Ratio( Recession to raising )Urban countries ; steep inclines 575 1.25 Typical SCS 484 1.67 Assorted urban/rural 400 2.25 Rural, turn overing hills 300 3.33 Rural, little inclines 200 5.50 Rural, really level 100 12.0 Beginning: Wanielista et Al. 1997 The base of the unit hydrograph can hence be calculated utilizing the undermentioned expression: ( Eq. 20 ) The extremum flow ( Qp ) is developed by come closing the unit hydrograph as a triangular form with basal clip of tp and unit country. Peak discharge can be written as: ( Eq. 21 ) Where Qp = extremum discharge ( m3/s ) A = drainage country ( mi2 ) tp = clip from get downing of rainfall to top out discharge ( H ) Steep terrain and urban countries tend to bring forth higher extremums that occur earlier ensuing in a peak factor be givening towards 600. Similarly, level swampy parts which tend to retain and hive away H2O, therefore doing a delayed and lower extremum may ensue in values be givening towards 300 or lower ( SCS 1972 ; Wanielista, et Al. 1997 ) . Table 5 illustrates the possible values for a hydrograph top outing factor and the associate ratio of the recession limb length to raising limb. CN values relate the sum of overflow produced by a watershed and is used to build man-made unit hydrographs. This hydrograph can so be used to steer the design standard for technology constructions. Figure 6 demonstrate that for different CN values the form of the hydrograph varies. At higher CN values there is a shorter clip to top out, a higher extremum value and a shorter recession clip. Design standards hence have to take into consideration these factors and therefore the demand for this methodological analysis to be calibrated to local conditions. Figure 6: Comparative hydrographs for different CN values ( Woodward et Al. 2003 )Model EvaluationModel rating involves standardization and proof and is frequently done through quantitative and qualitative steps that involve both graphical comparing and statistical trials. This is hence a procedure for consistently analysing the mistakes or differences between theoretical account anticipations and field observations. Tools are hence needed to do optimum usage of the information available in the information to place theoretical account construction and parametric quantities, and that allow elaborate analysis of theoretical account behaviour ( Wagner et al. 2001 ; Krause et Al. 2005 ) . These tools are frequently termed the efficiency standards for theoretical account appraisal Donigian and Rao ( 1990 ) describe patterning as comprising of three stages ( Figure 6 ) . The first stage ( stage I ) includes all the stairss needed to setup a theoretical account, qualify the water parting, and fix for theoretical account executings i.e. informations aggregation, theoretical account input readying, and parameter rating. Phase II is the theoretical account proving stage which involves standardization, proof, and, when possible, post-audit. Phase II is where the theoretical account is evaluated to measure whether it can reasonably stand for the watershed behaviour, for the intents of the survey. The last stage ( phase III ) includes the ultimate usage of the theoretical account, where it can be used as a determination support tool for direction and regulative intents. Figure 6: Mold Procedure Calibration and proof is of import because the result establishes how good the theoretical account represents the water partings, for the intent of the survey. Krause et Al. ( 2005 ) gave three grounds why hydrologists need to measure theoretical account public presentation: 1 ) to supply a quantitative estimation of the theoretical account ‘s ability to reproduce historic and future watershed behavior ; 2 ) to supply a agency for measuring betterments to the mold attack through accommodation of theoretical account parametric quantity values, model structural alterations, the inclusion of extra experimental information, and representation of of import spacial and temporal features of the watershed ; and 3 ) to compare current patterning attempts with old survey consequences.Efficiency CriteriaBeven ( 2001 ) define efficiency standards as mathematical steps of how good exemplary simulations fit the available observations. Efficiency standards in general, incorporate a summing up of the error term ( i.e. difference between the fake and the ascertained variable ) normalized by a step of the variableness in the observations. To forestall the canceling of mistakes with opposite mark, the summing up of the absolute or squared mistakes is frequently use. The consequence is an accent is on larger mistakes while smaller mistakes tend to be neglected. Examples of two efficiency standards frequently used are: 1 ) coefficient of finding ( r2 ) and 2 ) Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency ( E ) .Coefficient of finding r2This can be defined as the squared value of the coefficient of correlativity and can be calculated as follows: ( Eq. 22 ) Where O = observed, P = Predicted The scope of r2 prevarications between 0 and 1 which depict how much of the observed is explained by the predicted. A value of zero means no correlativity, where as a value of one shows that there is perfect correlativity between the predicted and the observed. In utilizing r2 information is provided by the gradient B and the intercept a of the arrested development on which r2 is based. For a good understanding the intercept a should be near to zero which means that an ascertained overflow of nothing would besides ensue in a anticipation near nothing and the gradient B should be near to one. For a proper theoretical account assessment the gradient B should ever be discussed together with r2. To make this in a more operational manner the two parametric quantities can be combined to supply a leaden version ( w R2 ) of R2. Such a weighting can be performed by: tungsten r2 = |b| A · r2 for B a†°Ã‚ ¤ 1 |b|-1 A · r2 for B & gt ; 1 ( Eq. 23 ) By burdening r2 under- or over anticipations are quantified together with the kineticss which consequences in a more comprehensive contemplation of theoretical account consequences.Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency ( E )Developed in 1970, the Nash- Sutcliffe efficiency coefficient is defined as one minus the amount of the absolute squared difference between the predicted and observed values normalized by the discrepancy of the ascertained values during the period under which probes were undertaken. This coefficient can be calculated as: ( Eq. 24 ) A disadvantage with the standardization of the discrepancy of the observation series is that is consequences in comparatively higher values of E in catchments with higher variableness and lower values of E in catchments with lower variableness. The scope of E lies between 1.0 ( perfect tantrum ) and a?’a?z . An E value of lower than zero indicates that the average value of the ascertained clip series would hold been a better forecaster than the theoretical account. Legates and McCabe ( 1999 ) stated that the largest disadvantage of the Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency is the fact that the differences between the ascertained and predicted values are calculated as squared values. As a consequence larger values are strongly overestimated whereas lower values are neglected in a clip series. For the quantification of overflow anticipations this leads to an overestimate of the theoretical account public presentation during extremum flows and an underestimate during low flow conditions. To cut down the job of the squared differences and the ensuing sensitiveness to extreme values the Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency E is frequently calculated utilizing logarithmic values of O and P. With the logarithmic transmutation of the overflow values the extremums are flattened and the low flows are kept more or less at the same degree. As a consequence the influence of the low flow values is increased in comparing to the inundation extremums ensuing in an addition in sensitiveness of lnE to systematic theoretical account over- or underprediction.